Thanks to critical scholarship and archaeological excavation, world today has access to thousands of Chinese written records dating to the period between 1400 and 1100 B.C. When these documents and songs were recorded, the Chinese language was already an effective tool. It was made up of separate monosyllabic sounds pronounced in carefully differentiated tones, relatively free of inflection, and recorded in individual conventionalized graphs slightly reminiscent of earlier picture writing. The language was not only to continue as the literary medium of the Chinese people for 3,000 years but also to perform a similar service for the neighboring peoples of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Since China's written records go back to antiquity and since a library is a place where written materials are preserved, the history of Chinese libraries is also of nearly 4,000 years' duration. Archivists of ancient China were really librarians. Among them was the great philosopher, Lao-tzu (570? B.C.-?), who was in charge of the Chou court archives.
Before the first modern library was established in China some 60 years ago, book collections were those of emperors, part of palace archives or holdings of government agencies, religious orders, schools or private individuals. The emphasis was on collection and safekeeping of materials rather than on easy availability and logical arrangement to disseminate knowledge, promote education, and benefit the public.
Although no national library in the modern sense existed in ancient China, each dynasty had a good-sized collection of books. Examples include the Tien-Iu Ko (Heavenly Prosperity Pavilion) and Shih-chu Ko (Stone Drain Pavilion) of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 221), and the Li-cheng Tien (Hall of Beauty and Truth) and Chien-yuan Tien (Heavenly Hall) of the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.). Most of the Tang collections were destroyed in the rebellions of An Lu-shan and Huang Chao. History records that "not a single slip of the old books was saved". In those days books were handwritten on bamboo and wood slips.
The Sung (960-1280) collection, including books handed down from previous dynasties, became one of China's best known. But most Sung books were destroyed or seized by the Tartars in the war of 1126. Then the Mongols vanquished the Tartars, conquered the Sungs, and moved most of the books to Peking. When the Mongols were overthrown and the Ming dynasty established in 1368, these books were shipped to Nanking, the new capital. They remained there until Cheng-chu (1403-1425), the third Ming emperor, made Peking the capital and moved the books back. Ming historians wrote: "Books of the palace collection were all good editions left from the Sung and Yuan (Mongol) dynasties. They were well preserved and well kept until they were partly destroyed by bandit insurgents."
Too Big to Print
The Ching (Manchu, 1644-1911) court paid more attention to books than the Mings. Those from earlier periods were placed in palace or government collections. China's first known collections open to scholars and students were the three "wen" (letters) pavilions of Kao Chung (1736-1796), the fourth Ching emperor. Called Wen-hui Ko, Wen-lan Ko, and Wen-chun Ko, the pavilions were in Chiang-tu, Hang-hsien, and Cheng chiang, respectively — all in Central China near the coast.
Kept at each of the three pavilions was a set of Ssu-ku Chuan-shu (Complete Works of the Four Divisions of the Imperial Library, also known as the Four Great Chien-lun Collectanea, Chien-lun being the name of Emperor Kao Chung's reign). Ssu-ku Chuan-shu was so voluminous that it was never printed. Seven copies were made by hand by the foremost calligraphers of the empire. This work included re-edited major writings of China from the earliest times. They were arranged in this order: Confucian classics, histories, philosophy, and belles-lettres. Works of secondary importance were not included but were mentioned and summarized. According to one Western estimate, the number of Chinese books in print at this time (America was declaring its independence) was about the same as all the non-Chinese books in the world put together.
A Japanese shrine in Taipei has been converted into Chinese-style National Central Library. (File photo)
Although the cataloging left much to be desired, the three "wen" pavilions may be considered public libraries because they met the basic criterion of "providing books for the public". During the Taiping Rebellion of 1850-1864, both Wen-chun and Wen-hui were destroyed and Wen-lan was damaged.
The first Chinese attempt to set up a modern library was made during the Wu-hsu Reform of 1898. In a memorial to the court, Secretary of Rites Li Tuan-fen suggested that "tsang-shu-lou (book storing pavilions) be established for enlightening the people". Be fore the term tu-shu-kuan (to-sho-kan in Japanese. meaning "book house") was borrowed to designate libraries, a number of them were called tsang-shu-lou. The library movement was set back by failure of the Wu-hsu Reform, but another reform was undertaken in the last years of the Ching dynasty and libraries were established in Chekiang, Honan, Nanking, and elsewhere.
Help from America
At this stage, Chinese libraries copied their organization and administration after those of Japan. In cataloging and classification, traditional Chinese procedures were followed. Finally, library science was introduced from the United States.
Miss Mary Elizabeth Wood, a graduate of the Simmons College Library School in America, came to China in 1900. Convinced that modern libraries were urgently needed for the development of education, she borrowed an octagonal pavilion from the Wen-hua University in Wuchang, Central China, and established a small public library. After years of ceaseless crusading and fund-raising, Miss Wood started the Wen-hua Kung-shu-lin (Wen-hua Public Book Collection) in 1910, a year before the October 10 Wuchang uprising toppled the Manchu dynasty and gave birth to the Chinese Republic.
The Public Book Collection was actually a university library servicing the general public rather than a public library. It was never formally designated as a public library under the regulations promulgated by the Ministry of Education. However, this collection played a significant role in the establishment of China's first library school, which originally was attached to Wen-hua University and then became independent as Wen-hua Junior College of Library Science, better known as the Boone Library School. Many of the librarians in charge of Chinese collections at American libraries received their training at Boone.
First Associations
In another development, an American librarian, Harry Clemons, came to China to head the Nanking University Library and teach library science. Two of his students received further training in the United States and later helped him start a library science division at Nanking University. The division did not last long but contributed significantly to the spread of library science and the improvement of college and university libraries.
The rough sailing experienced by the Republic of China in its early days was keenly felt on campuses. Warlords were fighting, national unity was nowhere in sight, and most universities were short of funds. New libraries of those days either were connected with religious missions or had independent financial resources.
The library that exerted the greatest influence belonged to Tsinghua University, which was established with Boxer Indemnity Funds returned by the United States. With American-trained Dr. Tai Chih-chien as its director, the Tsinghua library was the best in Peking (the city was later renamed Peiping) and served as a model for all Chinese libraries.
Southeastern University, later reorganized as Central University, built its Meng-fang Library in 1924. Under the directorship of Hung Yu-feng, this library became a model in its area. Both Tai and Hung helped establish library associations in their cities and in setting up the library education division of the Society for the Advancement of Chinese Education, a national organization whose membership included all Chinese educators.
By now the need was felt for a national library association and a national library. Miss Wood went to America to seek U.S. government assistance and invited Dr. Arthur E. Bostwick of the American Library Association to give lectures and make a survey in China. In April of 1925, the Library Association of China was inaugurated on the day Bostwick reached Peiping. Bostwick later recommended that part of the Boxer Funds be used to start libraries in larger Chinese cities. The suggestion was adopted by the China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture, which in 1929 granted US$700,000 for the construction of a building to house the Capital Library and the Peiping Metropolitan Library — later merged as the National Peiping Library.
Rare Books Saved
The Capital Library, set up in the declining years of the Chings, had the only national collection from past dynasties. It also had a set of Ssu-ku Chuan-shu formerly kept at Jehol and some 8,000 scrolls of Tang manuscript sutras discovered in the Tun-huang Caves of northwest Kansu.
Following the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in July of 1937, people of northern and southern China were forced to flee to the western interior. Universities moved and took their libraries. A number of provincial libraries also moved west. The National Peiping Library took many of its rare books to Shanghai and then sent them to the United States for safekeeping. There were more than 21,000 volumes, including some of the world's oldest printed matter. Also saved were more than 10,000 bamboo slips belonging to the Academia Sinica, China's highest seat of learning. Called chien and dating to the Han dynasty 2,000 years ago, these slips include official records of military activities and correspondence on frontier and personnel matters.
In return for safekeeping, the Americans were permitted to microfilm the rare books. Copies of the films were presented to the National Peiping Library and the National Central Library after the war. The microfilms were left behind when the mainland fell and the government moved to Taiwan in 1949 but the originals were safe in the United States.
Return from U.S.
The priceless books and inscribed slips — packed in more than a hundred cases — were returned to free China by the U.S. Library of Congress early in 1966, reinforcing Taiwan's standing as the world's leading sinology research center.
The eight-year War of Resistance against Japan destroyed most of the library progress that had been made through Sino-American cooperation. Books could be moved but not the buildings and other facilities. After reaching the rear, libraries had to build from scratch. Poor-quality paper was pasted together to make cards for cataloging, and cotton paper soaked in oil took the place of window glass.
The National Central Library was among those moved inland. This library was established in Nanking in 1934 by the Ministry of Education in keeping with a resolution passed by the National Education Conference in 1928. The resolution was adopted soon after the Northward Expedition of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek had achieved national unity and established the national government at Nanking. As the hub of political activity, Nanking needed a national library, but the government still was feeling the financial strains of the 1931 conflict with Japan. When the preparatory office for the library opened in April of 1933 there was not a single book, not a piece of lumber, and no budget. The budget approved in July was for only US$4,000. But a year later, the library managed to open with a collection of 170,000 volumes. It then was granted US$1.5 million by the British Boxer Indemnity Fund Administration for the construction of a building. The Sino-Japanese War interfered, however, and the library had to move west in November of 1937. Transportation difficulties ensued and only 130 crates of books reached Chungking, China's wartime capital.
Quiet surroundings promote study at NCL. (File photo)
Despite incessant air raids, the National Central Library constructed a building and opened with 300,000 volumes in 1941. With chairs for 400, this library was a busy center of Chungking cultural activities. It returned to Nanking after V-J Day.
In 1940, with the war raging, the Ministry of Education received letters and telegrams from scholars and collectors expressing concern about rare books in Shanghai. With money originally appropriated for a library building, the National Central Library acquired in the course of three years the cream of South China private collections. In the postwar era, its rare book collection increased to the one million mark.
Taiwan Collections
Because of the Communist rebellion, the Central Library was moved to Taiwan in 1948 to become part of the Joint Commission for the Administration of National Museums and Library. The rare book collection shipped to Taiwan included 11,162 titles and 121,368 volumes, broken down as follows:
Books Titles Volumes
Sung 201 3,079
Chin 5 16
Yuan 230 3,777
Ming 6,219 78,676
Hand-copied 2,586 15,201
Manuscripts 483 4,537
Collated 446 2,415
Korean 273 1,494
Japanese 230 2,281
In the opinion of Dr. Chiang Fu-tsung, until recently director of the National Central Library and now head of the Sun Yat-sen (National Palace) Museum in Taipei, this is the finest collection of Chinese rare books in existence. The majority of books printed in the Tang dynasty (618-907) and the period of the Five Dynasties (907-960) were rhyming dictionaries and Sanskrit sutras rather than classics, and only a few were preserved. The size of Sung dynasty (960-1280) holdings are therefore the criterion by which a Chinese rare book collection is judged. Many collectors have mistaken Ming reprints of Sung editions for original Sung works. But the 201 Sung volumes in the Central Library collection are genuine. In addition, there are more than 200 Yuan and more than 6,000 Ming titles.
The Central Library collection also has many unique items, few of which have been reprinted. The majority of Sung and Yuan works show excellent craftsmanship of paper, ink, and woodblock carving.
The National Central Library was reactivated in Taipei in 1954 and moved to its present site in the quiet Botanical Garden in the following year. With a new building and extension of old ones, it has transformed a former Japanese shrine into a useful library with reading, reference, and conference rooms as well as space for documents, newspapers, periodicals, rare books, and offices.
International Exchange
In addition to its own functions and services, NCL operates a Bureau for International Exchange of Publications. This bureau, set up in 1925, was under the Academia Sinica and the Education Ministry until 1945. In the 10 years up to June of 1965, the bureau received from abroad 416,415 volumes weighing 57,307.5 kilograms and mailed abroad 609,160 volumes weighing 76,913.21 kilograms. No less than 513 libraries in 53 foreign countries are exchanging publications with NCL.
Rare books being loaded for shipment to Taiwan (File photo)
In 1955 NCL helped the Taiwan Provincial Normal University establish a library division under its social education department. It also has sponsored annual summer workshops in library science and has participated in international conferences and exhibitions. In fiscal 1965, it took part in seven book fairs and exhibitions in Italy, Germany, the Philippines, Japan, and the United States.
Prof. Chu Wan-li, new curator of NCL, hopes to strengthen cooperation with libraries, universities, and research centers throughout the world. A member of the Academia Sinica and of the Princeton Institute of Advanced Study, Chu was named to the post in late September. He said no other library in the world can match NCL in basic materials on the history and literature of Ming China. Chu said he will make NCL's rare books available to foreign scholars.
Other Libraries
Rare books aside, the National Central Library is not the largest in Taiwan. As of early 1966, NCL had 194,739 books — 104,512 in Chinese, 81,981 in Western languages, 6,499 in Japanese, 1,559 in Korean, and 188 in Vietnamese. The National Taiwan University Library has 800,000 volumes — nearly twice the 1945 figure — in its main library, two branch libraries, and some 30 department libraries. The Provincial Taipei Library collection also exceeds 300,000, and the Taiwan Normal University Library has around 200,000 volumes.
The Directory of the Cultural Organizations of the Republic of China published by NCL in 1961 lists the size of collections at 39 public, special, and college libraries in Taiwan. The total number of books was 2,407,294 — an average of some 63,000 books per library. This survey covered 1 national, 2 provincial, 15 city and county, 15 special, and 6 college and university libraries. Many school and special libraries were not covered. In the academic year 1965, Taiwan had 2,143 primary schools, 551 middle schools, 56 colleges and universities, and 59 graduate institutes. All presumably have at least embryo libraries.
Only 22 of the 39 libraries listed numbers of readers in the 1960 survey. They ranged from 2,000 to 680,477, or from less than 7 to more than 2,200 daily.
The number of periodicals of Chinese and foreign origin available in Taiwan public libraries, as recorded in the 1960 survey, ranged from 14 in the case of the Tainan City Library to 243 at the Taipei City Library and 1,393 at the National Central Library. The 18 public libraries listed each had an average of about 30 newspapers. NCL topped the list with 103. Taichung Hsien (County) Library's 10 was at the bottom.
American Techniques
The survey showed the number of librarians ranged from 3 to 59. Each librarian handled an average of 3,000 to 4,000 books. The number of public library seats ranged from 36 to 376. The average number of books serviced per seat ranged from 100 to nearly 1,000. Each seat was used by between 1,000 and 2,000 people in 1960.
American library techniques are widely used in Taiwan, although some librarians may not realize it. Books are classified and catalog cards prepared in accordance with the methods of American library science. However, titles provide the main entries for Chinese books, whereas authors provide the main entries in the West.
A corner of NCL's periodicals reading room (File photo)
Modern cataloging rules for Chinese books were worked out by the National Central Library in 1935 and published in two volumes by the Commercial Press in Shanghai in 1946. One volume lists general rules, the other is concerned with rare books, charts, stone rubbings, periodicals, etc. NCL still follows most of these rules in classifying Chinese materials. For Western language publications, NCL uses both the Dewey decimal classification and U.S. Library of Congress systems.
Book classification was less complicated in ancient China. History records China's earliest bibliography as dating to the time of Emperor Cheng in the Han dynasty. Called Chi-lioh or Seven-Division Classification, the catalog was completed in two decades from 26 B.C. to 6 B.C. The seven divisions were: (1) general introduction, (2) six arts — propriety, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics, (3) philosophy, (4) literature, (5) military tactics, (6) magic calculations, and (7) craftsmanship.
Schools Classification
The Great Han Bibliography complied by Pan Ku followed the same pattern, except that the introduction category was omitted. Literary works were classified according to schools, not according to poetry or prose and so on. Details of the seven divisions are not known. The materials, including Pan Ku's bibliography, were lost before Tang times.
Cultural growth in post-Han times necessitated changes. The Chung-chin New Book Catalog, prepared by an official of Emperor Wu Ti (265-290 A.D.) of the Western Tsin dynasty, involved 39,945 volumes and used a four-division system drawn from the seven-division system.
The first catalog of Buddhist sutras was introduced during the Epoch of Division Between North and South (420-589). The names of the Chinese translators are the main entries. The translators' biographies, works, and origins of the sutras are included. This catalog has value as biographical literature as well in Buddhist bibliography.
The Taoists had their own system of classification, as did the Confucianists. One attempt was made to establish an all-inclusive system. During the reign of Emperor Ming Ti (465-473) of the House of Liu, Wang Chien devised a system of seven divisions: classics, philosophy, literature, military tactics, magic, craftsmanship, and geography.
China's first theoretical treatment of book classification and cataloging was Tung-chih-i-wen-lioh of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127 -1280). This General Bibliography of Sung introduced 12 main categories, with 30 subdivisions under each category.
The art of book classification reached its height in old China in the Ching dynasty. The most famous works include Tien-lu-ling-lang-shu-mu (Bibliography of the Royal Library) and Annotated Bibliography of Ssu-ku Chuan-shu. The latter became a model of Chinese bibliography.
Collections in U.S.
The influx of Western idea and books in the declining days of the Chings started the decline of traditional classification systems. The Dewey system, introduced after establishment of the Republic of China, first was used to classify Western books, then adapted to Chinese books. The National Central Library has published 11 bibliographies of importance and is working on others. U.S. financial assistance has contributed to this activity.
Even before modern libraries were established in China, American libraries had sizable collections of Chinese books. About 1,000 volumes reached the U.S. Library of Congress in 1869 under an exchange pro gram. Many leading American universities began to offer courses in Chinese language and culture in the late 19th century. The number of Chinese books in America increased rapidly. Then came the boom of Oriental studies in the 1930s and 1940s. It is estimated that U.S. holdings of books in Asian languages have tripled in the last 20 years.
A 1964 survey of 50 large libraries in the United States and Canada showed 3.5 million books in Asian languages — 2.1 million or roughly two-thirds in Chinese and 1.3 million or one-third in Japanese. Books in Korean, Manchurian, Mongolian, and other Oriental languages numbered 80,000. Major Chinese collections included: Library of Congress. 346,377 volumes; Harvard University, 277,292; Columbia, 167,000; Princeton, 154,368; California (Berkeley), 142,650; Chicago, 139,009; Washington (Seattle), 84,096; Yale, 75,000; British Columbia, 71,600; Cornell, 70,000; Toronto, 65,253; Claremont, 55,000; Hawaii, 53,761; and Michigan (Ann Arbor), 52,877.
Compared with American libraries, those of the Republic of China have a long way to go with regard to both physical facilities and hook resources. But libraries are rooms for improvement and free China's librarians are constantly trying to improve themselves. In the past the National Peiping Library was established as a model for the profession and the Boone Library School provided competent personnel. Now the National Central Library has far surpassed the National Peiping Library in functions and services.
With the Chinese Communists bent on the destruction of China's traditional culture, the responsibility of free Chinese libraries and librarians is greater than ever. The Red Guards and other spearheads of Peiping's "cultural revolution" have been burning not only the books of the West but the classics of China. Only the works of Mao Tse-tung and his sycophants are permissible on the mainland. Chinese book holdings in Taiwan and the rest of the free world one day will have to replenish the libraries of a liberated continental China.